Five Perspective on Personality: Comparison and Analysis

Five Perspective on Personality: Comparison and Analysis Compare and Contrast the Five Perspective on Personality Indicating  the Strengths and Weakness of Each Approach Tiara A. We know what we are but not what we may be. Ophelia in Hamlet According to Guralnik (1987), personality is defined as the quality or fact of being a person or a particular person. Guralnik also defines personality as distinctive individual qualities of a person, considered collectively. Personality is an account that is hard to put one explanation. Individuals each have their own definition. Instead of agreeing on one specific definition, psychologist are involved in an ongoing and perhaps never ending discussion of how to depict human personality and what topics belong within this sub field of psychology (Mayer, 2005; McAdams Pals, 2006). Five separate theories emerge from the different perspectives of notable psychologist. Each approach seem to correctly determine and examine an important feature of human personality. Biological theorists believes that personality is genetic. Behaviorists go with the idea that personality is a straightforward result of the influence of the individual’s environment. Third, the psychodynamic theory jour neys into the unconscious mind and childhood to describe personality. Humanist use free will as their statement of personality. Finally, the trait theory proposes that the development of personality is derived from many different traits. Psychologists have projected various theories of personality to attempt explaining similarities and provide reasons for differences in personalities. The following approaches psychodynamic, biological, humanistic, behavioristic and trait theories of personality will be outlined in this essay, highlighting both the strengths and weaknesses for each theory. Sigmund Freud was the primary proponent of psychodynamic theory but neo-Freudians such as Jung, Adler, Erikson and Horney are also major contributors. Freud believed that every personality has an unconscious element and that childhood experiences, even if not consciously recollected, continue to influence peoples behaviors. The theory states that a personality has three parts – the id, the ego, and the superego which serve to regulate instinctual energies and forms our personalities. The dynamic unconscious is populated by anxiety-provoking drives ideas which have been exiled from conscious awareness by psychological defense mechanisms such as repression. Defense mechanisms are the domain of the Ego, the part of personality preoccupied with mediating between external reality and the internal reality. They function to prevent the experience of intense conscious anxiety caused by a conflict between base drives and the moral aspect of the psyche, the Superego. Freud suggested that personality is formed during the first six years of life known as the Psychosexual stages of Development. The maturing child supposedly experiences a number of discrete and biologically-motivated psychosexual phases, during which their essential sexual energies (the libido) become endowed in particular areas of the body. So, the Id controlled oral stage, where sensual pleasure is derived via the mouth, gives way to the anal stage and the birth of the Ego. This is followed by the phallic st age, during which the Oedipus complex (children aspire to be the partner of the opposite-sex parent) occurs. Resolution of this complex results in shaping of the superego. Unlike some other theories, the psychodynamic approach is a downright theory and can explain behaviour without difficulty. One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that they centered on the effects that childhood experiences have on the developing personality. This is a strength because Freud was the first psychologist to realize the importance of childhood. It also led to other psychologists including Piaget developing theories on childhood. An instance of this is the Little Hans case study. Hans had a fear of castration which led to him having a phobia of horses. One weakness of the psychodynamic approach is that it is unfalsifiable. This is a weakness because the suppositions can not be scientifically measured or proved wrong. An example of this is the idea of the mind being split into three parts. It is a lso deterministic because it suggests that behaviour is pre-determined and people do not have free will. An example of this is the psychosexual stages. Freud also placed an over-emphasis on sexual drive and provides us with an extremely pessimistic outlook on personality as it discounts the notion of free will. Hans Eysenck was an early proponent of the biological approach to personality. He reasoned that personality can be divided along three primary dimensions. He called these extraversion-introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Eysenck debated that differences in personality are largely based in inherited biological differences. One strength of the biological conceptualization is that it is very scientific. This is a strength because the experiments used are measurable, objective and can be repeated to test for reliability. Also, the researcher has more control over the variables which is apparent in Selyes study of rats which led to him developing the theory of General Adaptation Syndrome. It is also deterministic. This is a strength because it increases the likelihood of being able to treat people with abnormal behaviour and provides statements about the causes of behaviour. This apprehension can then be used to improve peoples lives. One weakness of the biological approach is tha t it focuses too much on the nature side of the nature/nurture argument. They debates that behaviour is caused by hormones, neurotransmitters and genetics. One theory is that schizophrenia is genetic, however, twin studies show that it is not entirely genetic and the environment has a component to play. It is also nomothetic. This is a weakness because it creates theories about disorders and generalizes them to utilize to everyone. It does not take into account the view that humans are unique. An example of this is that General Adaptation Syndrome presumes that everyone responds in the same way to stress but does not take into account that some people have more support than others. The humanistic movement was led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers and concentrates primarily on an individual’s potential in terms of development and satisfaction. Humanists have an optimistic view on human nature. They focus on the ability of human beings to think consciously and rationally and to attain their full potential. In the humanistic view, people are accountable for their own lives and actions, they also have the freedom and will to change their attitudes and behaviour. Maslow believed a human has a hierarchy of needs to fulfill before becoming a self-actualized individual. After the basic needs such as food and shelter are met, humans seek safety and security and then seek love and acceptance. Only after all these things are through with can a person fulfill their potential or achieve â€Å"self-actualisation†. Rogers agreed with most of what Maslow believed in terms of striving towards self-actualisation but through the self-concept or one’s opinion of oneself. Roger’s approach is called person-centered. He believed that for a person to grow, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), unconditional positive regard (acceptance, respect, love), and empathy (being listened to and understood). Wit hout these, relationships and healthy personalities will not evolve as they should. Another basic premise to Roger’s theory is the self or self concept, i.e. what one thinks of oneself is the self-concept and how others see one is the actual self. The humanistic approach is enormously popular from a phenomenological view point: it is about a person living their life with meaning and authenticity. It also has the potential to enrich people’s lives by understanding and appreciating their own self. Like every theory, some people find the humanistic approach to be valid while others see it for the numerous inherent flaws. The humanistic perspective does recognize human experience, but largely at the expense of being non-scientific in its methods and ability to provide evidence. Some of the strengths of this theory include the focus on both the positive nature of humankind and the free will associated with change. Unlike Freuds theory and the biological approach, which focus on determinism or our lack of power over ourselves, Maslow and others see the individual as very powerful. With the good, always comes the bad, and this theory is no different. The biggest criticism of humanistic thought appears to center around its lack of concrete treatment approaches aimed at specific issues. With the basic concept behind the theory being free will, it is difficult to both develop a treatment technique and study the effectiveness of this technique. Critics also contend that the humanistic approach’s emphasis on self-fulfillment may lead some people to become self-indulgent and so absorbed with themselves that they develop a lack of concern for others. Even the concept of self-actualization poses challenges. Behaviorism was introduced by John B. Watson in the 1920s. It limits psychology to the study of observable behaviors. To explain the development and maintenance of behaviors, behaviorist used classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Personality is described as the end result of ones history of conditioning. One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has successfully applied classical and operant conditioning to its theories. Systematic desensitization is based on classical conditioning and is useful for treating phobias. Another strength is that it uses scientific methods of research. This is a strength because the experiments are objective, measurable and observable. An example of this is Banduras bobo doll study of aggression. One weakness of the behaviourist approach is that it focuses too much on the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate. It suggests that all behaviour is learned but cognitive and biological elements have been proved to affect behaviour. An example of this is the assumption that people learn behaviour by observing others getting rewarded for certain actions. Another weakness is the ethical issues raised by using animals in experiments. This is because animals can not consent to take part and are unable to withdraw. An example of a behaviourist animal study is Pavlovs dogs which led to classical conditioning principles being developed. The trait theory approach is one of the largest areas within personality psychology. According to this theory, personality is made up of a number of broad traits. A trait is basically a relatively stable characteristic that causes an individual to behave in certain ways. Some of the best known trait theories include Eysencks three-dimension theory and the five factor theory of personality. The trait perspective or 5 Factor theory of personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions that can be assessed. With respect to trait assessment, it is possible that people can fake desirable responses on self-report measures of personality. Research does show however that averaging behavior across several situations seems to indicate that people do have distinct personality traits. Genetic studies have supported the claim that genetic predispositions influence most personality types and that many traits are biologically rooted. The empirical nature of the work by Allport, Murray and other early trait psychologists sets them apart from the founders of most personality theories. Rather than relying on intuition and subjective judgment as did Freud and many of the neo-Freudians, these trait theorists used objective measures to examine their constructs. Cattell specifically allowed the data to determine the theory which was then subject to further empirical validation. This approach reduces some of the biases and subjectivity that plague other approaches. Like any other important theoretical perspective, the trait approach has generated a large amount of research. Weakness of this approach concerns the lack of an agreed-upon framework. Although all trait theorists use empirical methods and are concerned with the identification of traits, no single theory or underly ing structure ties all of the theories together. We can see the confusion this created by asking how many basic traits there are. Murray reduced personality to 27 psychogenic needs. Cattell found 16 basic elements of personality. Without an agreed-upon framework, it is difficult to gain a cohesive overview of the approach or to see how research on one aspect of personality traits fits with research in other areas. REFERENCE McLeod, S. A. (2007). Psychology Perspectives Burger, J.M. (2011) Introduction to Personality Ryckman, R.M. (2000). Theories of personality. Wadsworth: Belmont, CA. Carver, C.S., Scheier, M.F. (2000). Perspectives on personality (4th ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Your Body Is Never Yours Essay example -- Literary Analysis, Disgrace

In Disgrace, sex is repeatedly used a source of power. Lurie takes advantage of his young student and also pays prostitutes for sex. The most violent act of power and hatred towards sex and women is Lucy ´s rape, performed by two black men. However, I claim sex is in fact not used for power, but that the author believes that we never own our own bodies. Therefore, considering they are not ours, they cannot be violated. Furthermore, he shows us that the worth of our bodies is simply limited to the expectations of people around us. I state that in Disgrace, your body does not belong to you. It is merely a product of expectations and responsibilities. In the opening of the book, Lurie pays for the service of prostitutes to find relief. In his younger days, he could use his charm and good looks to seduce women now â€Å"if he wanted a woman he had to learn to pursue her, in one way or another to buy her† (7). He speaks of wanting something, suggesting that a woman is a thing that can be had, or in this case purchased. While reflecting of the prize he pays for his favorite-prostitute ´s body he realizes that â€Å"in a sense they own Soraya too, this part of her, this function† (2). They, being the escort company that she belongs too. Here it is implied that Soraya is just a product that can be sold and purchased, or even rented out by its owner. When, one day Lurie sees Soraya shopping with her sons, their relationship change. She becomes a person, a living being and their relation ends on her initiative. This shows of her desire to restrain herself to an object in the eyes of her customer. Subsequently, as David no longer can take pleasure from Soraya, he benefits from his position as a respected teacher to take advantage of the much younge... ...eople ´s eyes. Our bodies are not ours, as Lucy affirmed after she has decided to get married to Petrus. â€Å"With nothing. Not with nothing but. With nothing. No cards, no weapon, no property, no rights, no dignity† (205). This is how she sees herself, and perhaps how every person in the novel sees themselves. Everyone realizes that their value is bound to something other than them, David to his status as a professor, Melanie to her youth and beauty, Pertrus to his property and ownership, Lucy to being independent and Bev, who sadly knows that as a dumpy older woman she has no value at all. A sad idea, but nonetheless true in Disgrace. That we are not people but mere products, to be valued, evaluated and graded. The use of power to obtain sex or of sex to obtain power then becomes secondary. As readers we are left with the query of whom or what is deciding our value.

Big Cats in Asia Essay -- Animal Research

The relationship between human beings and the environment has always been in conflict. Our world these days is based on the economy and the ambitious interest people have in leaving nature behind. Nowadays, business is growing and so is the population, people’s priority is to make as much money as possible, but do they really care about the environment around them? Our greediness for money has led us to destroy forests and animal niches. However, there might still be hope for animals that were taken from their habitat to start over again, in a very slow process by stopping deforestation and increasing conservation areas. This essay is focused on the conflicts between the Siberian tigers human modified environment they now live in, and how this has been affecting them periodically to the point of becoming endangered, and how people around the world are trying to help by restoring their habitat. Tigers in crisis news write â€Å"almost all wild Siberian tigers live in the Southeast corner of Russia in the Sikhote-Alin mountain range east of the Amur River. Their range also includes northeastern of China and the Korean peninsula, and as far west as Mongolia. It is consider critically endangered species with the primary threats to its survival in the wild being poaching and habitat loss from intensive logging and development. It is estimated that the wild population of Siberian tigers at around 350-450 tigers†. (Introduction). Like Ruth Ashby said, â€Å"Once there were eight sub species of tigers today there are three of them†(22) Tigers occupy just 7% of their historic range due to the increase of population over the average global rate across the majority of the tiger’s habitat, therefore current tiger habitat extents through one of the mo... ...rticles/Killed%20for%20Cure%20-%20Trade%20in%20Tiger%20Bone.pdf>. O'Brien, T. G., Kinnaird, M. F. and Wibisono, H. T. (2003), Crouching tigers, hidden prey: Sumatran tiger and prey populations in a tropical forest landscape. Animal Conservation, 6: 131–139. doi: 10.1017/S1367943003003172 Sandberg, L. Anders, and Tor Sandberg. A Practical Environmental Education. Climate Change: Who's Carrying the Burden? : the Chilly Climates of the Global Environment Dilemma. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, 2010. 195-96. Print. Siberian Tiger at Tigers in Crisis." Tigers in Crisis - Information About Earth's Endangered Tigers. Web. . Wittier, John Greenleaf. "The Worship of Nature." The Complete Poetical Works of John Greenleaf Whittier. H.E.S ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1894. 141. Print. Reprinted

Is the Operation of Auditing Necessary? Essay examples -- Business Eth

[IS THE OPERATION OF AUDITS NECESSARY?] [We need to understand that audit is about achieving customer satisfaction in order to gain repeat business and overall increase company revenue.] What is business ethics? The ethics of a particular business can be diverse. Business ethics is the behavior that a business devotes to in its daily dealings with the world. Auditing is the analysis and inspection of the financial accounts/records whether or not a company has a qualified accountant and procedures of a firm or organization. This is necessary to gain a fair information on the company’s financial statements. With its auditing, potential investors and creditors can look at the financial statements to decide whether to invest in a business or not. Moreover, auditing is important as it also protects the public from scams and corrupt business procedures. So, is an audit process required? Yes, I believe it is an essential part for every business’s ethics, which is literally in order to do the right thing and guide how they should behave regarded as moral values. Many businesses have gotten a bad reputation by behaving unethically in order to survive in this competitive age. Some people may argue that most businesses are just interested in making money, which could be viewed as capitalism. It is not wrong to earn money in itself. This is the reason and the manner all companies exist. And, some companies actually are not aware of the importance of its auditing. They just think that it’s a waste of money and time. This aspect is the major drawback in these companies as customer doesn’t depend on these companies for long and their business is affected in long terms. They need to understand that an audit is about achieving customer sat... ...ing-reference/internal-auditing Kana Inagaki, Japan Prosecutors Charge Olympus, Executives. Wall Street Journal, March 7, 2012 Paine, L. S.: 1994, Managing for Organizational Integrity. Harvard Business Review (March-April), 106–117. W. Dunfee and Patricia Werhane., Report on Business Ethics Thomas in North America What Is The Importance Of Audit, And Its Advantages & Disadvantages?, http://www.blurtit.com/q678572.html Singh, Preeti. "Auditing Scam in Jagan Reddy's Firm, Nov.-Dec. 2011. Web. 01 Apr. 2012. . (16). Time (2002) The End of Arthur Andersen? Retrieved April 19, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,216386,00.html "The Sarbanes-Oxley Act 2002." The Sarbanes-Oxley Act 2002. Web. 01 Apr. 2012. .

Guidelines

How is history (or the author's biography) related to the short story? On your points and ideas by citing lines from the story. Moral ‘Philosophical Approach * Expound * What morality or philosophy in life does the short story teach to its readers? Expound on your points and ideas by citing lines from the story. Formalism Approach * Analyze the elements of the short story. * How do the elements help establish the overall message of the story? Psychoanalytical Approach * Examine the three parts of the major character's psyche.Explain how sexuality motivates the behavior and the struggle of the protagonist. * What symbols that are linked to sexual pleasure are made apparent in the story? Archetypal Approach * Identify and analyze the recurring patterns or symbol's in the story. * Expound Feminist Approach * What female roles are pointed out in the story? * Explain how society imposes gender gap. Marxist Approach * Discuss the struggle within classes (the haves vs.. The have-onto/ the elite vs.. The socially impoverished). * How does power remain constant or shift throughout the Tory?Reader Response Approach * How do you relate with the short story? * What are your personal responses to the short story? NOTE: Regardless of the approach used, the plot of the story should be pointed out. Criteria: Content (Are the questions clearly answered? How in-depth are the responses and discussions?

Case Study Counselling in the Work Placement

EA L RN E the learning centre R VIC Diploma in Counselling: Case Study Sixth term: Case Study. Length: 3,500 words (in total) General Points The subject of the case study must be a client whom you have been counselling for at least 6 sessions, preferably more. The case study is about how you and your client have worked together within your core theoretical model of counselling. This involves reflecting on your process in relationship to your client, your client’s process in relationship to themselves and the ongoing process between the two of you.Structure of the Case Study To set the scene for our case study, you need to describe the theory that informs your practice, ie. why you do what you do. We suggest you make reference to the following (this section should be no longer than 1,000 words): †¢ Your personal value system (this may include religious beliefs, your moral code, your philosophy of life) †¢ Theoretical sources (e. g. Rogers, the existentialists †¦) †¢ Ethical code of practice (personal code of practice, e. g. oundaries such as relationships with clients) †¢ Integration of the personal with the professional aspects of self as outlined above (how did you arrive at your current value system and the sources for these? ) It is important that your written case study reflects the particular quality of the relationship you have created with your client. What we would like to see and what we would like demonstrated is the way in which you have achieved this. E E S Writing Skills/Specialist coursework/15. 2 Diploma in Counselling: Case StudyR S PTO/†¦. 1 EA L RN E R the learning centre R VIC 1. Personal History Include age, sex, family history, current relationship, family situation and occupational situation. 2. Counselling arrangements Briefly describe the setting in which the counselling is provided: the frequency and length of counselling sessions, how long you’ve been counselling the client, and the number of sessions which have taken place to date. What was your initial contract with the client, and has this been reviewed? 3. Presenting issuesBriefly outline why the client has requested counselling now. As far as possible, try and use the client’s language. Please include your initial subjective responses to the client, noting your response to differences between you and your client. 4. Your assessment of this client Describe your assessment of the client and the nature of your work together making reference to relevant theory. a. b. c. d. e. On what criteria did you base your initial assessment? What is you client’s concept of self? To what extent do you agree with this?What sense did you make of this person? What was your response to both the client and their presenting issues? How did you decide that you were able to work with this client? What did you agree would be the focus of your work? f. 5. The presenting past Describe the relationship between responses to curren t issues with key events from the client’s past, e. g. loss. PTO/†¦ 2 E E S Writing Skills/Specialist coursework/15. 2 Diploma in Counselling: Case Study S EA L RN E R the learning centre R VIC 6. Counselling processDescribe the counselling process with reference to the beginning, middle and end stages. How do you consider your cl;ient changed? What contribution did counselling make to this? Evaluate your ability to demonstrate the core conditions at the different stages of the process. 7. Supervision Throughout your case study, we would like to see how you have used both your individual and group supervision in working with this client. We would also like to have some sense of how your internal supervisor is evolving during your work. . Practitioner issues In relation to your work with this client, evaluate your ability to hold professional boundaries and work within an ethical framework. You may find it helpful to mention any particular critical experiences to illustra te your practice. You might find it useful to look at Rogers ‘stages of process’ found in ‘On Becoming a Person’ (1961). See also, Mearns and Thorne (1988) Person Centred Counselling in Action, Sage E E Writing Skills/Specialist coursework/15. 2 Diploma in Counselling: Case Study S S 3

Promote Equality and Inclusion in Health Essay

Understand the importance of diversity, equality and inclusion 1.2 Describe the potential effects of discrimination Discrimination on the grounds of age, gender, race, sexuality or ability can damage a person’s self esteem and reduce their ability to develop and maintain a sense of identity. The potential of effects of discrimination are likely to vary between different people, these could be emotional or physical or potentially both at times. Possible effects could be: – Depressions – Low self esteem – Stress – Feeling isolated – Fear of rejection – Humiliation – Weight loss or gain – Anger Long term effects could be: – Long term depression – Increased behaviour problems – Difficulty communicating – Lack of acheivement – Restricted opportunities 1.3 Explain how inclusive practice promotes equality and supports diversity Inclusive practice promotes an indiviuals rights to acess equal opportunities. By ensuring that this happens promotes diversity. There are various pieces of legislation which have been put in place to promote equality and reduce discrimination. These include: – The Disability Discrimination Act 2005 – The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 – The Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000 – Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006 – Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN, 1989) – The Human Rights Act 1998 – The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (as amended) – Employment Equality Regulations 2003 Inclusive practice is about the attitudes, approaches and strategies taken to ensure that people are not excluded or isolated. This means welcoming people’s differences and promoting equality by ensuring equal opportunities for all, most of all, aspects of diversity. Inclusive practice is about providing the support that people want in order to live their lives as fully as possible. Examples of inclusive practice are: – Providing a ramp to allow wheelchair access to a building – Providing information in a range of languages and in audio format Responding sensitively to an individual’s diverse needs supports them in developing a sense of belonging, well-being and confidence in their identity and abilities. It also helps them to acheive their potential and allow them to take their rightful place in society. Be able to promote diversity, equality and inclusion 3.3 Describe how to challenge discrimination in a way that promotes change Throughout our social care setting it is important that discrimination is challenged if it has been witnessed. There are many different ways discrimination can be challenged to promote change. Some examples are: – Practicing Active Participation – By doing as much as possible to support only the parts of people’s lives that they really cannot manage for themselves, we can allow individuals to realise their value and reduce a feeling of isolation. This can help an individual gain self esteem and encourage them to take control and make their own decisions which will help  to reduce any form of abuse and discrimination. – Quick and Effective Complaint Procedure – This will help to let the individual know how seriously the act witnessed had been taken and the consequences of discrimination. Discrimination is less likely to occur if others have a strong understanding of the consequences. – Meeting and Discussion – Discussing and energisin g issues in day to day tasks help individuals to challenge discrimination.